Free WSET Level 3 Cheat Sheet: Regions, Climate & Exam Notes

Climate Types

How to Use Climate Information When Tasting

Climate is one of the first analytical tools you should reach for when assessing a wine in the exam. If you detect high acidity and moderate alcohol with delicate fruit flavours, the wine likely comes from a cool climate (continental or cool maritime). If you detect full body, high alcohol, ripe dark fruit, and low to moderate acidity, think warm climate (Mediterranean or warm continental).

The diurnal range is particularly useful for explaining wines that combine ripe fruit with fresh acidity. High-altitude continental climates (Mendoza, parts of Chile, Etna) produce this combination because hot days accumulate sugar while cold nights preserve malic acid. Maritime climates with cool ocean currents (Marlborough, Casablanca) can produce a similar effect: moderate daytime temperatures give slow, even ripening, while the lack of extreme heat preserves acid and aromatic compounds.

When a question asks you to explain the style of a wine from a named region, always start with climate. State the climate type, identify the key feature (temperature range, rainfall pattern, sunshine hours, or wind), and connect it to the wine characteristics you would expect. This forms the foundation of every cause-and-effect answer.

Soil Effects on Wine

Linking Soil to Tasting Notes

Soil affects wine through three main mechanisms: drainage (which controls vine water stress), fertility (which controls vigour), and heat properties (which influence ripening). In your exam answers, always specify which mechanism is relevant.

For example, the gravel soils of the Haut-Medoc are significant because they provide excellent drainage (preventing waterlogging in Bordeaux’s rainy maritime climate) and retain heat (radiating warmth back to the vines at night, aiding ripening of the late-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon). The limestone of Burgundy matters because its alkaline pH promotes higher acidity in grapes and its good drainage creates mild water stress that limits yields naturally. The slate of the Mosel is critical because it absorbs solar energy on steep slopes and radiates it back, extending the effective growing season in a marginal cool climate where Riesling would otherwise struggle to ripen.

Never simply state a soil type without explaining its effect. The examiners are looking for the connection between soil and wine, not just the fact that a certain soil exists in a certain place.

Viticulture Decisions

Expanding on Viticultural Context

Training systems are chosen to suit the climate. Bush vines (gobelet) are traditional in hot, dry Mediterranean climates (Southern Rhone, old-vine Barossa) because the low canopy shades fruit from intense sun and the self-supporting structure works in windy conditions. VSP is standard in most modern vineyards because it creates an orderly canopy that is efficient to manage mechanically. Pergola systems (as in Trentino) provide shade in hot climates and are suited to vigorous varieties.

Yield control is one of the most frequently tested topics. Remember that lower yields correlate with concentration, but the relationship is not linear. Extremely low yields do not always produce better wine if the vine is stressed to the point of shutdown. The ideal is moderate, controlled stress that limits berry size (smaller berries have a higher skin-to-juice ratio, increasing colour, tannin, and flavour extraction) without compromising vine health.

Winemaking Techniques

Pre-Fermentation

• Cold soak — extracts colour and fruit without harsh tannin
• Whole-bunch inclusion — adds structure, spice, freshness
• Must enrichment (chaptalization) — raises potential alcohol
• Skin contact (whites) — enhances body and aromatic complexity

Fermentation

• Temperature — cool (whites: aromatic preservation), warm (reds: extraction)
• Vessel — stainless (neutral), oak (flavour/texture), concrete (thermal stability)
• Yeast — commercial (reliable) vs indigenous (complex, terroir-expressive)

Post-Fermentation

• MLF — converts malic to lactic acid (softens, adds creaminess)
• Lees contact/batonnage — enriches texture, bready/nutty notes
• Oak ageing — new (flavour: vanilla, toast) vs old (gentle oxidation only)
• Fining and filtration — clarification; excessive use can strip character

Oak Detail: French vs American

The choice of oak origin, age, size, and toast level is a crucial winemaking variable. A 225-litre barrique exposes wine to more oak per litre than a 500-litre puncheon or a 2,000-litre foudre. New oak imparts the most flavour; after three or four uses, a barrel is considered “neutral” and contributes mainly to gentle oxidation and textural development. When you taste oak influence (vanilla, toast, smoke, coconut), consider both the origin and the age of the barrel as explanations.

France: Bordeaux

Left Bank vs Right Bank

The 1855 Classification

The 1855 Classification was created for the Paris Exposition and ranks 61 red wine chateaux of the Medoc (plus Chateau Haut-Brion from Graves) into five tiers, or growths (crus). It has been amended only once, in 1973, when Chateau Mouton Rothschild was elevated from Second to First Growth.

First Growths (Premiers Crus): Chateau Lafite Rothschild (Pauillac), Chateau Latour (Pauillac), Chateau Margaux (Margaux), Chateau Haut-Brion (Pessac-Leognan), Chateau Mouton Rothschild (Pauillac).

The classification also includes a separate ranking for Sauternes, with Chateau d’Yquem as the sole Premier Cru Superieur.

Key Communes of the Left Bank

Margaux: The southernmost Medoc commune. Gravel soils produce wines known for perfumed aromatics, elegance, and silky tannins. Chateau Margaux is the leading estate.

Saint-Julien: Small but consistently high-quality commune between Margaux and Pauillac. Balanced wines with structure and elegance. Key chateaux include Leoville Las Cases, Leoville Barton, and Ducru-Beaucaillou.

Pauillac: The heart of the Medoc, home to three of the five First Growths. Deep gravel beds produce powerful, structured, blackcurrant-dominated Cabernet Sauvignon that requires significant ageing.

Saint-Estephe: The northernmost major commune. More clay in the soils produces wines with firm tannins and a slightly more austere character. Chateau Cos d’Estournel and Chateau Montrose lead.

Pessac-Leognan: Part of the Graves sub-region, south of the city of Bordeaux. Produces both red and dry white wines of high quality. The Graves Classification (1959) ranks both red and white wines separately. Chateau Haut-Brion is the most famous estate.

Key Appellations of the Right Bank

Saint-Emilion: Large and diverse appellation on limestone plateau and clay slopes. The Saint-Emilion Classification (revised periodically, most recently in 2022 though subsequently challenged) ranks estates as Premier Grand Cru Classe A (the highest tier, historically Ausone and Cheval Blanc), Premier Grand Cru Classe B, and Grand Cru Classe. The limestone plateau and clay-limestone cotes (slopes) produce the finest wines.

Pomerol: Small, prestigious appellation with no official classification. Clay soils with a famous iron-rich subsoil (crasse de fer) produce rich, voluptuous Merlot-dominated wines. Chateau Petrus and Chateau Le Pin are the most celebrated estates. Pomerol wines are typically generous, with plum and truffle notes, round tannins, and relatively early approachability compared to Left Bank equivalents.

Dry White Bordeaux and Sauternes

Pessac-Leognan produces the finest dry whites, blending Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon, often fermented and aged in oak. Sauternes and Barsac produce botrytised sweet wines from Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and Muscadelle. The proximity of the Ciron River creates morning mists that encourage noble rot (Botrytis cinerea), which concentrates sugars and adds apricot, honey, and marmalade complexity.

France: Burgundy

Classification Hierarchy

Cote de Nuits vs Cote de Beaune

The Cote d’Or (Golden Slope) is the heart of Burgundy, divided into two halves:

Cote de Nuits (northern half): Primarily red wine from Pinot Noir. This is the source of Burgundy’s greatest reds. The strip of east-facing slopes runs from Marsannay in the north to Nuits-Saint-Georges in the south. The best vineyards sit at mid-slope on well-drained limestone, sheltered from westerly rain.

Key villages of the Cote de Nuits (north to south):

• Gevrey-Chambertin: The largest Grand Cru commune. Produces structured, powerful Pinot Noir with dark fruit. Grand Crus include Chambertin and Chambertin-Clos de Beze.
• Morey-Saint-Denis: Often overlooked, but contains Grand Crus Clos de la Roche, Clos Saint-Denis, and Clos de Tart.
• Chambolle-Musigny: Known for elegance, perfume, and silky texture. Grand Crus Musigny and Bonnes-Mares.
• Vougeot: Dominated by the single Grand Cru Clos de Vougeot (50 hectares, over 80 owners, highly variable quality).
• Vosne-Romanee: The most celebrated village in Burgundy. Grand Crus include Romanee-Conti, La Tache, Richebourg, Romanee-Saint-Vivant, La Romanee, and La Grande Rue.
• Nuits-Saint-Georges: No Grand Crus, but many excellent Premier Crus. Wines tend to be firmer and more structured than neighbouring villages.

Cote de Beaune (southern half): Both red and white, with the world’s greatest Chardonnay vineyards. Important red wine villages include Pommard (firm, structured) and Volnay (elegant, perfumed). The white wine villages are legendary:

• Meursault: Rich, buttery Chardonnay with hazelnut notes. No Grand Crus, but exceptional Premier Crus (Les Perrieres, Les Charmes, Les Genevrieres).
• Puligny-Montrachet: The pinnacle of white Burgundy. Elegant, mineral, concentrated. Grand Crus include Le Montrachet (shared with Chassagne), Chevalier-Montrachet, and Batard-Montrachet.
• Chassagne-Montrachet: Slightly richer, fuller style than Puligny. Both red and white.
• Corton: The only Grand Cru for red wine in the Cote de Beaune (Corton). Corton-Charlemagne is the Grand Cru for white.

Chablis

Located far north of the Cote d’Or, Chablis produces unoaked or lightly oaked Chardonnay on Kimmeridgian limestone. The cool continental climate produces wines with steely acidity and mineral purity. There are 7 Grand Crus (all on one slope) and 40 Premier Crus. The Grand Crus are: Blanchot, Bougros, Les Clos, Grenouilles, Les Preuses, Valmur, and Vaudesir.

Cote Chalonnaise and Maconnais

The Cote Chalonnaise (Mercurey, Givry, Rully, Montagny) produces affordable Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. The Maconnais is warmer, producing richer Chardonnay, with Pouilly-Fuisse as the top appellation. Beaujolais, at the southern end, uses Gamay on granite soils. The 10 crus of Beaujolais (Morgon, Moulin-a-Vent, Fleurie, Brouilly, etc.) produce the most serious wines.

France: Rhone Valley

Northern Rhone

The Northern Rhone is a narrow, steep-sided valley with a continental climate moderated by the sheltering effect of the valley walls. Syrah is the only permitted red grape. Key appellations:

Hermitage: The most prestigious Northern Rhone appellation. Granitic hill with various soil exposures producing powerful, concentrated Syrah that can age for decades. Small amounts of white Hermitage from Marsanne and Roussanne are also made. The hill of Hermitage has named lieux-dits (Les Bessards, Le Meal, L’Ermite) that produce distinctly different styles.

Cote-Rotie: The “roasted slope” at the northern end. Two main slopes: Cote Blonde (lighter soils, more elegant wines) and Cote Brune (darker soils, more structured wines). Up to 20% white Viognier may be co-fermented with Syrah, adding aromatic lift and perfume. Produces some of the most elegant Syrah in the world.

Condrieu: White wines only, from Viognier. Rich, aromatic, with peach, apricot, and floral notes. Low acidity, full body. Typically unoaked or lightly oaked to preserve fruit purity. Chateau-Grillet is a single-estate appellation within Condrieu.

Cornas: 100% Syrah, no white grapes permitted. The most robust and tannic Northern Rhone red, from south-facing granitic slopes that produce fully ripe, powerful wines. Historically rustic, but increasingly refined.

Saint-Joseph: A large appellation on both banks of the Rhone. Variable quality, with the best sites on steep granitic slopes producing elegant, medium-bodied Syrah. Also produces white wine from Marsanne and Roussanne.

Crozes-Hermitage: The largest Northern Rhone appellation, surrounding Hermitage. Flatter, more fertile soils on the plain produce lighter, earlier-drinking Syrah. The best sites on the hillsides can approach Hermitage in quality.

Southern Rhone

The Southern Rhone is Mediterranean: hot, dry summers, with the Mistral wind as a defining influence (cooling, drying, and protecting against disease). Wines are typically blends, dominated by Grenache.

Chateauneuf-du-Pape: The flagship Southern Rhone appellation. Famous for its galets roules (large rounded stones) that retain daytime heat. Up to 13 grape varieties are permitted (18 if you count colour variants separately). Grenache dominates most blends, supported by Syrah, Mourvedre, Cinsault, and others. Both red and white wines are produced. Reds are full-bodied, spicy, with dried herb and garrigue character.

Gigondas: Often called “poor man’s Chateauneuf.” Grenache-dominated reds from the foothills of the Dentelles de Montmirail. Slightly more structured than Chateauneuf due to higher altitude and stonier soils.

Vacqueyras: Adjacent to Gigondas. Similar style, slightly lighter. Promoted from Cotes du Rhone-Villages to its own appellation in 1990.

Cotes du Rhone and Cotes du Rhone-Villages: The regional appellations. Cotes du Rhone covers a vast area and produces a wide range of quality. Cotes du Rhone-Villages is a step up, with named villages (e.g., Cairanne, Rasteau, Seguret) producing more concentrated, site-specific wines.

Italy

Italian Classification

Piedmont

Piedmont is Italy’s answer to Burgundy: a region where a single great grape variety (Nebbiolo) produces wines of extraordinary complexity from meticulously classified vineyards.

Barolo vs Barbaresco:

Both produce wines from Nebbiolo characterised by high acidity, high tannin, pale garnet colour that develops orange rim with age, and complex aromas of tar, roses, dried cherry, truffle, and liquorice.

Langhe DOC: A broader appellation covering the hills around Barolo and Barbaresco. Allows more flexibility in grape varieties and blending, including Nebbiolo, Barbera, Dolcetto, and international varieties. Langhe Nebbiolo is often an accessible introduction to the Nebbiolo grape.

Barbera d’Asti and Barbera d’Alba: Barbera produces high-acid, low-tannin, juicy reds with cherry and plum fruit. It is the most widely planted grape in Piedmont and offers excellent value.

Tuscany

Chianti Classico: The historical heartland of Chianti, between Florence and Siena. Minimum 80% Sangiovese, with Canaiolo, Colorino, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot as permitted blending partners. Three tiers:

• Chianti Classico: minimum 12 months ageing
• Chianti Classico Riserva: minimum 24 months ageing
• Chianti Classico Gran Selezione: minimum 30 months ageing, from estate-grown grapes

Brunello di Montalcino: 100% Sangiovese (the Brunello clone), from vineyards around the hill town of Montalcino south of Siena. Minimum 5 years ageing (2 in wood). Riserva requires 6 years (2 in wood). Produces powerful, tannic wines with cherry, leather, tobacco, and dried herb character that can age for decades. Rosso di Montalcino is the second wine, released younger.

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano: Minimum 70% Sangiovese (locally called Prugnolo Gentile). Often compared to Chianti Classico in style, with moderate body, cherry fruit, and firm structure.

Super Tuscans: A category born in the 1970s when pioneering producers (Sassicaia, Tignanello, Ornellaia) chose to use international varieties (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot) and new French oak outside the traditional DOC/DOCG regulations. Initially classified as humble Vino da Tavola, now mostly under the IGT Toscana designation. Bolgheri DOC on the Tuscan coast has since been created largely to accommodate these wines.

Veneto

Valpolicella: Light, cherry-fruited reds from Corvina, Corvinone, and Rondinella. Basic Valpolicella is fresh and simple. Valpolicella Classico comes from the original hillside zone. Valpolicella Superiore has higher alcohol and longer ageing.

Amarone della Valpolicella: Made from grapes dried for several months (appassimento process) on racks or in drying lofts. This concentrates sugars, producing a full-bodied, high-alcohol (14-17% ABV), richly flavoured wine with dried fruit, chocolate, and spice character. Fermentation is taken to dryness or near-dryness.

Ripasso della Valpolicella: Valpolicella refermented on the leftover skins (vinacce) from Amarone production. This adds body, complexity, colour, and slightly higher alcohol. It bridges the gap between light Valpolicella and intense Amarone.

Soave: White wines from Garganega (minimum 70%) and Trebbiano di Soave. At its best, Soave offers almond, citrus, and stone fruit character. Soave Classico comes from the original volcanic hillside vineyards and produces the most characterful wines. Recioto di Soave is a sweet version made from dried grapes.

Spain

Rioja

Sub-regions: Rioja Alta (cooler, higher altitude, more elegant wines), Rioja Alavesa (Basque Country, limestone soils, aromatic and structured), and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja; warmer, lower altitude, fuller, more alcoholic wines often used in blends).

Tempranillo is the dominant grape, often blended with Garnacha (adding fruit and body), Graciano (adding colour and acidity), and Mazuelo/Carinena (adding structure). Traditional Rioja uses extensively aged American oak, giving coconut and vanilla character. Modern producers increasingly use French oak and shorter ageing for a more fruit-forward style.

Ribera del Duero

High-altitude plateau (700-1,000m) along the Duero River. Extreme continental climate with scorching summers and freezing winters produces concentrated, powerful Tempranillo (locally called Tinto Fino or Tinta del Pais). The altitude preserves acidity despite high daytime temperatures. Wines are typically deeply coloured, full-bodied, with dark fruit, spice, and firm tannins. Vega Sicilia and Pingus are benchmark producers.

Priorat

Small, steep, DOCa region (one of only two in Spain, alongside Rioja) in Catalonia. Old-vine Garnacha and Carinena (Carignan) grown on llicorella (slate and quartz) terraces. The slate soils force deep rooting and produce intensely concentrated wines with mineral character, high alcohol, and remarkable depth. Low yields from old bush vines are the norm.

Sherry (see detailed section below)

Germany

Pradikat Levels (Ascending Ripeness)

1. Kabinett — lightest, often off-dry
2. Spatlese — late harvest, off-dry to dry
3. Auslese — selected bunches, medium-sweet
4. Beerenauslese (BA) — botrytis-affected, sweet
5. Eiswein — frozen on vine, sweet
6. Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) — dried berries, intensely sweet

VDP Classification

The VDP (Verband Deutscher Pradikatsweinguter) is a private association of leading estates that applies a Burgundian-style vineyard hierarchy:

VDP classification is not part of German wine law but is widely respected and increasingly influential in shaping how German wine is understood internationally. The GG (Grosses Gewachs) designation has become a benchmark for dry Riesling quality.

Key Regions

Mosel: Germany’s most famous wine region. Extremely steep slate slopes along the Mosel, Saar, and Ruwer rivers. Cool climate produces racy, aromatic Riesling with high acidity, low alcohol (often 7-9% ABV for off-dry styles), and flavours of green apple, citrus, slate, and petrol (with age). The steep slopes (up to 65 degrees) maximise sun exposure and heat absorption from the dark slate. Key villages: Bernkastel, Piesport, Wehlen, Urzig, Brauneberg.

Rheingau: South-facing slopes along a unique east-west stretch of the Rhine. Warmer than the Mosel, producing fuller-bodied, more structured Riesling. Both dry (trocken) and sweet styles. Schloss Johannisberg is historically significant as the alleged birthplace of late-harvest wines. Key villages: Rudesheim, Johannisberg, Hochheim.

Pfalz: Germany’s warmest and second-largest region. Diverse soils and grape varieties. Riesling dominates, but Pinot Noir (Spatburgunder), Pinot Blanc (Weissburgunder), and Pinot Gris (Grauburgunder) also thrive. The warmth produces riper, rounder wines than the Mosel.

Nahe: A diverse region between the Mosel and Rheingau, producing a wide range of styles from different soil types (volcanic, slate, sandstone, loess). Considered to combine Mosel elegance with Rheingau body.

Franken: Known for dry, earthy Silvaner in distinctive bocksbeutel bottles. Continental climate with limestone soils.

New World Regions

California

Napa Valley: The most prestigious American wine region. Warm climate (Mediterranean influenced) produces powerful, concentrated Cabernet Sauvignon. Key sub-AVAs:

Sonoma County: More diverse than Napa, with greater climatic range:

• Russian River Valley: Cool, foggy maritime influence. Outstanding Pinot Noir and Chardonnay with bright acidity and complexity.
• Dry Creek Valley: Warmer inland valley. Classic old-vine Zinfandel with bramble fruit and spice. Also excellent Sauvignon Blanc.
• Alexander Valley: Warm climate. Rich Cabernet Sauvignon with softer tannins than Napa.
• Sonoma Coast: Broad appellation; the best sites are on ridges above the fog with true cool-climate conditions.

Oregon

The Willamette Valley is Oregon’s most important wine region. Cool, maritime climate (often compared to Burgundy) produces elegant Pinot Noir with red cherry, earth, and spice character. The Dundee Hills, Eola-Amity Hills, and Ribbon Ridge are key sub-AVAs. Chardonnay and Pinot Gris also perform well.

Chile

Chile benefits from a long, narrow geography bordered by the Andes and the Pacific, creating diverse climate zones:

• Maipo Valley: Bordeaux-style Cabernet Sauvignon. Alto Maipo (higher altitude, Andes influence) produces the most premium wines.
• Colchagua Valley: Warmer, producing rich Carmenere and Cabernet Sauvignon.
• Casablanca Valley: Cool, ocean-influenced. Excellent Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir.
• Leyda Valley: Even cooler than Casablanca, closer to the ocean. Crisp Sauvignon Blanc and elegant Pinot Noir.
• Aconcagua: Both the warm Aconcagua Valley (Cabernet, Syrah) and the cool coastal area.

Argentina

Mendoza dominates Argentine production (70%+ of national output). The high-altitude continental climate (vineyards from 800-1,500m) provides intense sunshine, large diurnal range, and very low rainfall (irrigation from Andean snowmelt is essential).

• Lujan de Cuyo: Traditional Malbec heartland. Medium altitude (around 900m).
• Uco Valley: Higher altitude (1,000-1,500m). Cooler conditions produce more refined, complex Malbec with brighter acidity and mineral character. Sub-regions Tupungato, Tunuyan, and San Carlos are increasingly differentiated.
• Salta (specifically Cafayate): The world’s highest commercial vineyards (up to 3,000m). Extreme altitude produces intensely coloured, aromatic Torrontes and structured Malbec.

Australia

The contrast between Barossa Valley and Eden Valley is a frequent exam topic. Both are in South Australia, but Eden Valley sits at higher altitude (400-500m vs Barossa’s 200-350m), producing cooler conditions. Barossa is famous for old-vine Shiraz (some over 150 years old, pre-phylloxera) with rich, concentrated, dark fruit and chocolate character. Eden Valley produces more elegant Shiraz and world-class dry Riesling with citrus, floral, and mineral character.

Clare Valley Riesling is another benchmark: dry, with lime juice acidity, frequently sealed with screwcap. The continental climate and altitude create wines with intense varietal purity.

New Zealand

Marlborough: New Zealand’s largest and most famous region. Maritime climate with high sunshine hours and cool nights. Sauvignon Blanc dominates, showing intense passionfruit, gooseberry, and herbaceous character driven by high UV light and thiol-producing yeast strains. Also produces Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

Central Otago: The world’s southernmost wine region of significance. Continental climate with extreme diurnal range produces concentrated, aromatic Pinot Noir with cherry, plum, and thyme character. Semi-arid conditions; altitude and latitude create challenging but rewarding growing conditions.

Martinborough: Small North Island region. Sheltered, dry climate (rain shadow of the Rimutaka Range). Produces elegant, Burgundian-style Pinot Noir.

Hawke’s Bay: Warmest major region on the North Island. Gimblett Gravels sub-region (free-draining alluvial gravel) produces outstanding Bordeaux-style red blends and Syrah.

South Africa

Stellenbosch: The most important red wine region. Mountainous terrain provides diverse aspects and altitudes. Cabernet Sauvignon and Bordeaux blends dominate, with increasing quality in Syrah. Warm climate moderated by False Bay breezes.

Swartland: The emerging star of South African wine. Old bush vine Chenin Blanc (some over 40 years old) produces textured, complex whites. Rhone-style reds from Syrah, Grenache, and Mourvedre are increasingly acclaimed. Hot, dry Mediterranean climate with diverse granite, schist, and shale soils.

Elgin and Walker Bay: Cool-climate regions south of Stellenbosch. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay thrive. Hemel-en-Aarde in Walker Bay has become one of the New World’s finest Pinot Noir sources.

Constantia: Historic region on the Cape Peninsula, cooled by ocean breezes. Known for Sauvignon Blanc and the historic Vin de Constance dessert wine from Muscat.

Sparkling Wine Production

Traditional Method Step by Step

1. Base wine production (high acid, moderate alcohol)
2. Assemblage (blending across varieties, vineyards, vintages)
3. Liqueur de tirage added (sugar + yeast)
4. Second fermentation in sealed bottle (creates CO2, approx. 1.2% additional ABV)
5. Lees ageing / autolysis (minimum 15 months NV Champagne, 36 months Vintage)
6. Riddling (remuage) — sediment moved to neck
7. Disgorgement (degorgement) — sediment expelled
8. Dosage — sweetness adjusted (Brut Nature to Doux)
9. Cork, cage, and rest before release

Champagne Dosage Levels

Port Styles

Understanding Ruby vs Tawny

The fundamental distinction is the ageing environment. Ruby styles are aged reductively in large, inert vessels (concrete, stainless steel, or large old wood) that minimise oxygen contact. This preserves the fresh, fruity, youthful character of the wine. The colour remains deep ruby-purple.

Tawny styles are aged oxidatively in small oak barrels (pipes, typically 550 litres) that expose wine to oxygen through the wood. Over years and decades, the colour fades from ruby through garnet to tawny amber. Flavours evolve from fresh fruit to dried fruit, nuts, caramel, butterscotch, and toffee. The older the indicated age, the more these oxidative characters develop and the paler and more amber the colour becomes.

Vintage Port (also called Vintage or sometimes Vintage/Vintage Port) is the pinnacle of the ruby style. It is declared only in exceptional vintages (roughly 3-4 per decade), bottled young after 2-3 years in large vessels, and designed to age in bottle for 20-50+ years. It develops enormous complexity through reductive ageing.

Sherry Styles

The Solera System

The solera system is a fractional blending method that ensures consistency. Barrels are arranged in tiers called criaderas, with the oldest wine at the bottom (the solera row) and the youngest at the top. When wine is drawn for bottling (the saca), it is taken from the solera. Each row is then topped up (refreshed) from the row above. Only a portion (typically one-third or less) is drawn at any time, meaning the solera always contains a blend of multiple ages. Some soleras are over 100 years old.

Flor and Its Influence

Flor is a film of Saccharomyces yeast that forms on the surface of wine in partially filled barrels. It requires specific conditions: alcohol between 15-15.5%, temperature between 15-20 degrees Celsius, and sufficient nutrients. Flor protects wine from oxidation (keeping it pale and fresh), consumes residual sugar and glycerol (making the wine bone dry and light-bodied), and contributes distinctive flavours: yeast, bread dough, almonds, and chamomile. In Sanlucar de Barrameda, the coastal humidity supports thicker, more active flor, which is why Manzanilla has a distinctly lighter, more saline character than Fino from Jerez.

SAT Quality Assessment (Level 3) — Full Walkthrough

Key quality indicators: balance, length, intensity, complexity

How to Assess Quality Systematically

After completing your appearance, nose, and palate assessment, evaluate quality using these steps:

Step 1: Check for faults. Is there TCA (musty, wet cardboard)? Volatile acidity (nail polish remover, vinegar)? Oxidation (flat, bruised apple, Sherry-like in a still table wine)? Reduction (struck match, rubber, rotten eggs)? If yes, mark as faulty and name the fault.

Step 2: Assess balance. Consider how acidity, alcohol, tannin (for reds), sweetness (if present), body, and flavour intensity relate to each other. Are they integrated and harmonious, or does one element stick out? A wine with high acidity needs sufficient fruit concentration to balance it. A wine with high alcohol needs body and flavour to carry it.

Step 3: Evaluate length. After spitting, count the seconds that flavour persists. Short (under 5 seconds) suggests acceptable or below. Medium (5-10 seconds) suggests good. Long (10-20 seconds) suggests very good. Very long (20+ seconds) suggests outstanding.

Step 4: Judge intensity. Is the flavour concentrated or dilute? Are the aromas expressive or muted? Intensity contributes to quality but is not sufficient alone.

Step 5: Assess complexity. How many different aromas and flavours can you identify? Do they evolve in the glass? Is there layering and nuance, or just one or two simple notes?

Step 6: Assign quality level and justify. Write a sentence that references the specific criteria. For example: “Very good quality: very good balance between ripe fruit, firm but fine tannins and fresh acidity; pronounced intensity; good complexity showing blackcurrant, cedar, and tobacco; long finish.”

SAT Vocabulary Reference

Common Short-Answer Question Frameworks

Framework 1: “Describe the factors that influence the style of [wine] from [region]”

Structure your answer in this order:

1. Climate — state the type, explain how it affects ripening, acidity, and alcohol
2. Soil — state the key soil type(s), explain drainage and vine stress effects
3. Viticulture — mention relevant practices (yield control, harvest timing, organic)
4. Winemaking — describe fermentation and ageing choices and their sensory effects
5. Resulting style — summarise the wine’s characteristics as a natural consequence of the above

Framework 2: “Compare [Wine A] with [Wine B]”

Structure as a paired comparison:

1. State the key similarity (e.g., both are Pinot Noir)
2. Compare climate and resulting acid/alcohol/body differences
3. Compare soil and terroir differences
4. Compare winemaking approaches
5. Summarise style differences, linking back to the factors above

Framework 3: “Explain the production process of [sparkling/fortified wine]”

Follow the chronological production steps:

1. Base wine production
2. Key process steps (second fermentation, fortification, drying, etc.)
3. Ageing method and duration
4. Final adjustments (dosage, blending)
5. Resulting style characteristics

Framework 4: “Explain the classification system of [region]”

1. Name the system and when it was established
2. List the hierarchy levels from highest to lowest
3. Explain what each level represents (vineyard, producer, or quality standard)
4. Give specific examples at the top and bottom of the hierarchy
5. Note any revisions or criticisms if relevant

Key Cause-and-Effect Chains

1. High altitude → greater diurnal range → preserves acidity while achieving ripe fruit → wines with freshness and concentration (Mendoza Malbec, Etna Nerello Mascalese)

2. Clay soil → water retention → consistent moisture supply → larger berries, rich wines; but also risk of excessive vigour in wet years (Pomerol Merlot)

3. New French oak → fine grain, split staves → subtle vanilla, cedar, integrated tannin → elegant oak influence (Burgundy Chardonnay, Barolo)

4. New American oak → wider grain, sawn staves → more pronounced coconut, dill, sweet vanilla → bolder oak influence (traditional Rioja, some Barossa Shiraz)

5. Low yield (green harvest) → fewer bunches per vine → vine channels energy into fewer grapes → smaller berries, higher skin-to-juice ratio → more concentrated colour, tannin, and flavour

6. Whole-bunch fermentation → stems contribute tannin structure + potassium (raises pH slightly) + aromatic compounds → spice, freshness, structural backbone (Burgundy Pinot Noir, Rhone Syrah)

7. Late harvest → higher sugar accumulation → higher potential alcohol, riper flavour profile → risk of losing acidity if too late (warm-climate Grenache, Zinfandel)

8. Cool fermentation (whites) → slower yeast activity → preservation of volatile aromatic compounds (thiols, esters) → fresh, fruity, aromatic wines (Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc)

9. Malolactic fermentation blocked → malic acid retained → crisp, sharp acidity preserved → steely, fresh character (Chablis, New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc)

10. Malolactic fermentation encouraged → malic acid converted to softer lactic acid → rounder, creamier texture → buttery character in whites (oaked Chardonnay)

11. Botrytis cinerea (noble rot) → fungus dehydrates grape → concentrates sugars, acids, and glycerol → adds honey, apricot, marmalade complexity → luscious sweet wine (Sauternes, Tokaji, BA/TBA)

12. Carbonic maceration → whole berries ferment intracellularly → minimal tannin extraction → soft, fruity, low-tannin wine with candy/banana notes (Beaujolais Nouveau)

13. Appassimento (grape drying) → water evaporates from berries → sugar concentration increases → high-alcohol, full-bodied wine with dried fruit intensity (Amarone)

14. Lees ageing and batonnage → dead yeast cells release proteins and mannoproteins → increased body, creamy texture, bready/nutty flavours → enhanced mouthfeel (Muscadet Sur Lie, Champagne, white Burgundy)

15. Flor ageing → yeast film protects from oxidation, consumes glycerol and residual sugar → bone-dry, light, pale wine with yeasty, almond character (Fino Sherry)

16. Oxidative ageing (no flor) → controlled oxygen exposure through barrel wood → colour darkens, fresh fruit fades, nutty and dried fruit flavours develop (Oloroso Sherry, Tawny Port)

17. Steep slopes → improved angle of incidence for sunlight → better ripening in marginal climates → but higher labour costs (hand harvesting required) (Mosel Riesling, Cote-Rotie Syrah)

18. Maritime climate with gravel soil → rainfall counteracted by excellent drainage → vines not waterlogged → mild water stress promotes concentration → full-bodied, structured wines (Bordeaux Left Bank Cabernet)

19. Mediterranean climate with Mistral wind → hot conditions cooled and dried by strong north wind → reduced disease pressure, preserved freshness → balanced wines despite warm climate (Southern Rhone Grenache blends)

20. Limestone soil + cool climate → alkaline soil promotes acid retention, cool temperatures preserve malic acid → high-acid, elegant wines with mineral character (Burgundy Chardonnay, Champagne)