WSET Level 2 Cheat Sheet (Free) — Grapes, Regions & Exam Day Facts

White Grape Variety Profiles

White Grape Variety Details

Chardonnay is the chameleon of the wine world. What makes it unique is that its relatively neutral fruit character acts as a blank canvas for winemaking. In Chablis, without oak and in a cool climate, it produces a lean, steely wine with green apple and mineral notes. In Meursault or Puligny-Montrachet with barrel fermentation, batonnage, and full MLF, it becomes a rich, buttery, toasty wine of enormous complexity. In warm-climate Australia or California, tropical fruit and melon dominate, and oak adds vanilla and spice. Chardonnay pairs beautifully with roast chicken, lobster, creamy pasta, and soft cheeses.

Sauvignon Blanc is defined by its unmistakable aromatics. Cool-climate versions from Sancerre or Pouilly-Fume are all about crushed nettles, wet stone, and taut citrus, while Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc explodes with passion fruit, guava, and cut grass. It is almost never oaked (the notable exception being Pessac-Leognan blends) and is best drunk young. The high acidity makes it a natural match for goat cheese, salads, shellfish, and dishes with green herbs or citrus-based sauces.

Riesling is considered by many wine experts to be the world’s greatest white grape for its sheer range, its ability to reflect terroir, and its capacity to age for decades. German Riesling from the Mosel can be hauntingly delicate at just 7-8% alcohol, with electric acidity balancing a touch of residual sugar. Alsatian Riesling is typically drier and more full-bodied. Australian Riesling from the Clare and Eden Valleys is bone-dry with lime juice intensity. Aged Riesling develops a characteristic petrol note that is considered a hallmark, not a fault. It pairs with sushi, Thai food, pork, and anything with a sweet-sour balance.

Pinot Grigio / Pinot Gris shows how the same grape can yield radically different wines depending on where and how it is made. Italian Pinot Grigio from the Veneto or Trentino-Alto Adige is designed for simplicity: light, clean, and refreshing with subtle citrus and apple, perfect as an aperitif or with light salads. Alsatian Pinot Gris is a different proposition entirely: fuller-bodied, with ripe peach, a touch of smoke and honey, occasionally off-dry. It pairs with charcuterie, roast pork, and mildly spiced dishes.

Gewurztraminer is one of the easiest grapes to identify in a blind tasting because its lychee and rose petal aromas are so distinctive. The grape’s naturally low acidity gives the wines a rich, almost oily mouthfeel. In Alsace, it can be dry or made as late-harvest Vendange Tardive or Selection de Grains Nobles (sweet). Its aromatic intensity and low acidity make it one of the best wines for pairing with spicy food, particularly Thai, Indian, and Chinese cuisines. It also pairs well with Munster cheese and foie gras.

Viognier is an opulent grape that produces wines of intense perfume. Condrieu in the Northern Rhone is its most celebrated origin, where it achieves a balance of rich apricot and peach fruit with floral elegance. In the Languedoc and New World, it can be riper and more obviously fruity. Viognier is sometimes co-fermented with Syrah (a tradition from Cote-Rotie) to add aromatic lift and stabilise the red wine’s colour. It pairs with rich fish dishes, creamy curries, and roasted root vegetables.

Albarino stands out for its combination of ripe stone fruit and citrus with a distinctive saline, almost briny quality that comes from the Atlantic-influenced vineyards of Rias Baixas. It is always made in stainless steel to preserve its freshness and is best drunk within a few years of the vintage. The saline character makes it a natural partner for seafood, particularly shellfish, grilled fish, and ceviche.

Chenin Blanc is perhaps the most versatile grape in the world in terms of the range of styles it produces. In the Loire, Vouvray alone can be dry (sec), off-dry (demi-sec), sweet (moelleux), or sparkling. Savennieres produces austere, mineral, age-worthy dry Chenin. In South Africa, it produces everything from simple, clean quaffing wines to serious, barrel-fermented bottlings. Its high acidity preserves freshness across all styles and gives it excellent ageing potential. Dry Chenin pairs with poultry and pork; sweet Chenin with fruit desserts and blue cheese.

Semillon is a quiet achiever. In Bordeaux, it is blended with Sauvignon Blanc for dry whites and is the dominant grape in Sauternes, where botrytis concentrates its sugars and flavours into luscious, honeyed wines. In Australia’s Hunter Valley, it is made as a dry, unoaked wine that starts life lean and citrusy but ages magnificently over 10-20 years, developing toast, honey, and marmalade complexity. Dry Semillon pairs with seafood and chicken; Sauternes with foie gras, Roquefort, and fruit tarts.

Muscat is unique among wine grapes because it actually smells and tastes like grapes. Its floral, perfumed character makes wines that are immediately appealing. Moscato d’Asti (light, sweet, gently fizzy, low alcohol) is one of the world’s most popular wine styles. At the other extreme, Rutherglen Muscat from Australia is a sticky, dark, intensely sweet fortified wine aged for decades. Muscat pairs with fruit desserts, light pastries, or is enjoyed on its own as a refreshing aperitif.

Red Grape Variety Profiles

Red Grape Variety Details

Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted premium red grape in the world. Its thick skin gives deep colour, firm tannin, and excellent ageing potential. In Bordeaux’s Left Bank (Medoc, Pessac-Leognan), it is blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc and aged in French oak to produce structured, long-lived wines with blackcurrant, cedar, cigar box, and graphite notes. In Napa Valley, it is often made as a single-variety wine (or with small amounts of blending grapes), showing riper fruit, more obvious oak, and higher alcohol. Coonawarra in Australia adds a distinctive eucalyptus and mint character. Cabernet pairs with red meat, especially steak and lamb, hard aged cheeses, and rich stews.

Merlot provides the soft, fleshy counterpart to Cabernet Sauvignon. On Bordeaux’s Right Bank, in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, it produces some of the most expensive wines in the world (Petrus, Le Pin), with silky plum, chocolate, and truffle complexity. In Chile, it is widely planted and produces excellent value at all price points, with ripe plum fruit and a soft, approachable texture. Merlot’s medium tannin and fruit-forward character make it versatile at the table: roast pork, duck, mushroom dishes, and medium-aged cheeses.

Pinot Noir is the grape that drives winemakers to obsession. Thin-skinned and sensitive to climate, it produces pale, delicate wines that, at their best, are hauntingly complex. Red Burgundy from great sites like Gevrey-Chambertin or Vosne-Romanee shows cherry, raspberry, and violet in youth, evolving into mushroom, game, undergrowth, and truffle. Oregon’s Willamette Valley produces Pinot Noir with bright red fruit and earthy undertones. Central Otago in New Zealand achieves riper, darker fruit with a silky texture. Pinot Noir pairs with salmon, duck, mushroom risotto, soft cheeses, and truffle dishes.

Syrah / Shiraz is one grape with two names and two very distinct personalities. As Syrah in the Northern Rhone, it produces medium to full-bodied wines with black pepper, violet, blackberry, and olive notes, often with firm tannin and a savoury, meaty character (Hermitage, Cote-Rotie, Cornas). As Shiraz in Australia’s Barossa Valley or McLaren Vale, it becomes a blockbuster: full-bodied, velvety, with ripe black fruit, chocolate, mocha, and sweet spice from American oak. Both styles are food-friendly: Rhone Syrah with game, grilled meats, and Provencal dishes; Australian Shiraz with barbecue, ribs, and hard cheeses.

Grenache is the world’s most widely planted red grape (though Cabernet Sauvignon is catching up). Its thin skin means relatively light colour and low tannin, but it compensates with generous alcohol (often 14-15%+), ripe red fruit, and a warm, spicy character. It is the backbone of Chateauneuf-du-Pape and most Southern Rhone blends, as well as Spanish Garnacha wines from Aragon and Priorat. In Australia, it is part of the classic GSM blend. Grenache pairs with Mediterranean cuisine: grilled vegetables, lamb, sausages, and tomato-based pasta.

Tempranillo is Spain’s noble grape, the engine behind Rioja and Ribera del Duero. It has a natural affinity for oak, which is why Spanish ageing classifications (Crianza, Reserva, Gran Reserva) are so important for understanding Tempranillo wines. Young Tempranillo shows bright cherry and plum; with oak ageing, it develops vanilla, tobacco, leather, and dried fig. American oak (traditional Rioja) gives coconut and vanilla; French oak (modern Rioja and Ribera del Duero) gives spice and toast. It pairs with roast lamb, chorizo, Manchego cheese, and paella.

Sangiovese is the soul of Tuscan wine. Its naturally high acidity and firm tannin make it one of the most food-friendly red grapes in the world. In Chianti Classico, it shows bright sour cherry, dried herbs, and a dusty, earthy quality. Brunello di Montalcino requires 100% Sangiovese and extended ageing, producing wines of great structure and complexity with dried cherry, leather, tobacco, and spice. It pairs naturally with Italian food: pasta with tomato sauces, grilled meats, pizza, hard Italian cheeses like Pecorino and Parmigiano.

Nebbiolo produces some of Italy’s most profound and long-lived wines. Its name comes from nebbia (fog), referencing the autumn mists in Piedmont. Despite a deceptively pale colour, Nebbiolo delivers fierce tannin and bracing acidity, with a haunting bouquet of rose, tar, cherry, dried herbs, leather, and truffle. Barolo requires a minimum of 38 months ageing (18 in wood); Barbaresco requires 26 months (9 in wood). Both need years in bottle to soften. Nebbiolo pairs with rich, fatty dishes: braised beef, truffle risotto, aged hard cheeses, and game.

Malbec transformed from a minor Bordeaux blending grape into Argentina’s calling card. In Mendoza, particularly in the high-altitude sub-region of Lujan de Cuyo and the Uco Valley, it produces deeply coloured, velvety wines with plum, blackberry, violet, and dark chocolate. The altitude (up to 1,500 metres) provides intense UV light that thickens the grape skins, giving deep colour and ripe tannins while cool nights preserve acidity. French Malbec from Cahors is leaner, more tannic, and more rustic. Argentine Malbec pairs with grilled steak (asado), empanadas, and smoky barbecue.

Gamay is the antithesis of big, tannic reds. In Beaujolais, it produces joyful, light-bodied wines meant to be enjoyed young, often slightly chilled. Carbonic maceration (whole-bunch fermentation in a sealed tank) gives the characteristic banana, bubblegum, and candied fruit aromas of Beaujolais Nouveau. But Cru Beaujolais from villages like Morgon, Fleurie, and Moulin-a-Vent shows much more serious, structured wine with mineral complexity that can age 5-10 years. Gamay pairs with charcuterie, picnic food, roast chicken, and light cheese.

Zinfandel / Primitivo is a grape of extremes. In California, Zinfandel can produce anything from sweet, pink White Zinfandel (hugely popular commercially) to massive, inky, high-alcohol (15%+) reds bursting with blackberry, jam, and baking spice. Old-vine Zinfandel from Sonoma, Paso Robles, or Lodi can be exceptionally concentrated. In Puglia, southern Italy, as Primitivo, it tends to be slightly more restrained, with dried fruit, herb, and earth notes alongside the ripe dark fruit. It pairs with barbecue, pizza, spicy sausages, and hearty stews.

Region Quick Reference

France

Bordeaux is divided by the Gironde estuary. The Left Bank (Medoc: including Margaux, Saint-Julien, Pauillac, Saint-Estephe; and Graves/Pessac-Leognan) is dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon blended with Merlot, producing tannic, age-worthy wines. The Right Bank (Saint-Emilion, Pomerol, Fronsac) is Merlot country, yielding softer, rounder wines that are often approachable sooner. Entre-Deux-Mers produces dry white Bordeaux from Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon. Sauternes and Barsac produce the world’s benchmark botrytised sweet wines from Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and Muscadelle.

Burgundy is organised around terroir. The key sub-regions from north to south are: Chablis (steely, unoaked Chardonnay), Cote de Nuits (Pinot Noir heartland: Gevrey-Chambertin, Chambolle-Musigny, Vosne-Romanee, Nuits-Saint-Georges), Cote de Beaune (both Pinot Noir and world-class Chardonnay: Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet, Chassagne-Montrachet), Cote Chalonnaise (good value Pinot and Chardonnay: Mercurey, Givry, Rully), and Maconnais (Chardonnay-focused: Pouilly-Fuisse, Saint-Veran). Beaujolais, technically part of Burgundy, is Gamay country.

Northern Rhone produces single-variety Syrah reds from steep granite hillsides. Key appellations: Hermitage (powerful, long-lived), Cote-Rotie (elegant, sometimes co-fermented with Viognier), Cornas (robust, tannic), Crozes-Hermitage (lighter, earlier-drinking, best value), and Saint-Joseph (medium-bodied, approachable). Condrieu produces Viognier whites.

Southern Rhone is warmer and flatter, producing generous Grenache-based blends. Chateauneuf-du-Pape is the flagship (13 permitted grape varieties, Grenache dominant). Cotes du Rhone and Cotes du Rhone-Villages are the volume appellations offering excellent value.

Loire Valley stretches from the Atlantic (Muscadet: lean, dry Melon de Bourgogne, often sur lie) through Anjou and Touraine (Vouvray and Savennieres for Chenin Blanc; Chinon and Bourgueil for Cabernet Franc) to the Upper Loire (Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume for Sauvignon Blanc).

Alsace sits in a rain shadow east of the Vosges, giving it a dry, sunny continental climate unusual for its northerly latitude. The four noble grapes are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, and Muscat. Wines are labelled by variety. Grand Cru designates the best vineyard sites. Vendange Tardive (late harvest) and Selection de Grains Nobles (botrytis) are sweet wine categories.

Italy

Piedmont sub-regions: Barolo (Nebbiolo; minimum 38 months ageing, 18 in oak) and Barbaresco (Nebbiolo; minimum 26 months, 9 in oak) are the prestige DOCGs. Barbera d’Asti and Barbera d’Alba produce high-acid, low-tannin, cherry-driven reds. Dolcetto d’Alba is lighter still, meant for everyday drinking. Gavi (Cortese grape) produces crisp dry whites. Moscato d’Asti is sweet, low-alcohol, and gently sparkling.

Tuscany sub-regions: Chianti Classico (minimum 80% Sangiovese; the Classico zone between Florence and Siena is the historic heartland), Brunello di Montalcino (100% Sangiovese; minimum 5 years ageing before release), Vino Nobile di Montepulciano (Sangiovese-based, called Prugnolo Gentile locally), and Bolgheri (the Super Tuscan heartland, Bordeaux-style blends using Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and sometimes Sangiovese).

Veneto produces Prosecco (Glera grape, Charmat method, from the Conegliano-Valdobbiadene and broader Prosecco DOC areas), Valpolicella (light, fruity Corvina-based reds), Amarone della Valpolicella (dried-grape appassimento technique producing concentrated, high-alcohol, full-bodied wines), and Soave (Garganega grape, dry white).

Spain

Rioja has three sub-zones: Rioja Alta (higher altitude, cooler, producing the most elegant wines), Rioja Alavesa (also elevated, Basque Country side, finesse-driven), and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja; lower, warmer, producing riper, more full-bodied wines often used in blends). Traditional Rioja uses American oak barrels; modern producers increasingly use French oak or a combination.

Ribera del Duero sits on Spain’s central Meseta at 700-1,000 metres altitude. The extreme diurnal temperature variation (hot days, cold nights) gives wines excellent colour, ripe tannins, and preserved acidity. Tempranillo here (called Tinto Fino) is often more powerful and concentrated than in Rioja.

Germany

Key German terms: Trocken (dry), Halbtrocken (off-dry), Qualitatswein (quality wine from a specified region), Pradikatswein (quality wine with special attributes, classified by ripeness: Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Trockenbeerenauslese, Eiswein). VDP is a voluntary association of top producers with its own vineyard classification (Grosse Lage = Grand Cru equivalent).

New World

Spanish Ageing Classifications

Note: White and rose Crianza requires 1.5 years (6 months oak); white and rose Reserva requires 2 years (6 months oak). Gran Reserva whites require 4 years total with 6 months in oak. These ageing minimums apply specifically to Rioja; other DOs may have slightly different requirements.

Burgundy Classification Hierarchy

1. Grand Cru – finest vineyards (e.g. Romanee-Conti, Le Chambertin, Le Montrachet). Only the vineyard name appears on the label, without the village name. About 1% of Burgundy production.
2. Premier Cru – excellent sites (vineyard named on label, e.g. Gevrey-Chambertin Premier Cru “Clos Saint-Jacques”). About 10% of production.
3. Village – village name on label (e.g. Gevrey-Chambertin, Meursault). About 35% of production.
4. Regional – Bourgogne (can come from anywhere in Burgundy). About 54% of production.

The Systematic Approach to Tasting (SAT) – Full Template

Appearance

• Clarity: Clear / Hazy
• Intensity: Pale / Medium / Deep
• Colour (white): Lemon / Gold / Amber
• Colour (rose): Pink / Salmon / Orange
• Colour (red): Purple / Ruby / Garnet / Tawny

Nose

• Condition: Clean / Faulty (TCA/cork taint, oxidation, volatile acidity, reduction)
• Intensity: Light / Medium(-) / Medium / Medium(+) / Pronounced
• Aroma characteristics:
  • Primary (grape-derived): Citrus (lemon, lime, grapefruit), stone fruit (peach, apricot, nectarine), tropical fruit (pineapple, mango, passion fruit, banana), green fruit (apple, pear, gooseberry), red fruit (cherry, strawberry, raspberry, redcurrant), black fruit (blackberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, plum), dried fruit (fig, prune, raisin, sultana), floral (blossom, violet, rose, elderflower), herbaceous/herbal (grass, asparagus, green pepper, mint, eucalyptus, dried herbs), spice (white pepper, black pepper, liquorice)
  • Secondary (winemaking-derived): Yeast, bread, biscuit, toast, butter, cream, cheese rind, vanilla, clove, coconut, cedar, smoke
  • Tertiary (ageing-derived): Dried fruit, honey, marmalade, coffee, chocolate, caramel, toffee, leather, earth, mushroom, game, tobacco, cedar, petrol/kerosene, wet leaves, forest floor

Palate

• Sweetness: Dry / Off-dry / Medium / Sweet
• Acidity: Low / Medium(-) / Medium / Medium(+) / High
• Tannin (reds only): Low / Medium(-) / Medium / Medium(+) / High
• Alcohol: Low (below 11%) / Medium (11-13.5%) / High (above 13.5%)
• Body: Light / Medium / Full
• Flavour intensity: Light / Medium(-) / Medium / Medium(+) / Pronounced
• Flavour characteristics: (same categories as nose)
• Finish: Short / Medium / Long

Conclusions

• Quality: Poor / Acceptable / Good / Very Good / Outstanding
• Quality is assessed based on: balance, intensity, complexity, length, and typicity

Sparkling Wine Methods

Traditional method wines are characterised by fine, persistent bubbles and complex yeasty, biscuity, toasty autolytic flavours from extended lees ageing. Champagne NV must age at least 15 months on lees; vintage Champagne at least 36 months. Cava uses the same method but with Spanish grapes (Macabeo, Parellada, Xarel-lo). Cremant is the term for traditional-method sparkling wines from French regions outside Champagne (Cremant d’Alsace, Cremant de Loire, Cremant de Bourgogne).

Charmat method wines preserve fresh, fruity, floral primary aromas because the second fermentation is short and there is minimal lees contact. Prosecco (Glera grape) shows green apple, pear, and white flower. Asti and Moscato d’Asti (Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains) show grape, peach, and orange blossom at low alcohol.

Fortified Wine Styles

Port (Douro, Portugal)

• Ruby – young, fruity, aged in large vessels
• Reserve Ruby – higher quality, more concentrated
• Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) – single vintage, 4-6 years in large vessels, ready to drink
• Vintage Port – single exceptional vintage, bottled young, ages decades in bottle
• Tawny – aged in small barrels, nutty, caramel, dried fruit
• 10/20/30/40-Year-Old Tawny – indication of average age of the blend
• Colheita – single-vintage Tawny, dated
• White Port – white grapes, dry to sweet, often served as aperitif

Key fact: Port is fortified during fermentation (spirit is added before all sugar is converted), which is why Port is sweet. The spirit kills the yeast, leaving residual sugar.

Sherry (Jerez, Spain)

• Fino/Manzanilla – dry, under flor, pale, yeasty, almond, saline (Manzanilla from Sanlucar)
• Amontillado – dry, amber, nutty (flor then oxidative ageing)
• Oloroso – dry, dark, rich, full (no flor, fully oxidative)
• Palo Cortado – dry, nose of Amontillado, body of Oloroso (rare)
• Pedro Ximenez (PX) – very sweet, dark, raisins, molasses, viscous

Key fact: Sherry is fortified after fermentation (all sugar is fermented to dryness first), which is why Fino, Amontillado, and Oloroso are naturally dry. Sweetened commercial versions exist but are not the traditional style.

The solera system is used to age and blend Sherry. Barrels are stacked in rows (criaderas). Wine for bottling is drawn from the oldest row (the solera), which is refreshed from the next oldest, and so on. This ensures consistency across batches.

Winemaking Effects – Expanded

New oak is one of the most significant winemaking choices. A new 225-litre French oak barrel (barrique) costs several hundred euros and imparts strong vanilla, toast, cedar, and clove flavours as well as fine-grained tannin. American oak contributes more overt coconut, vanilla, and dill. The proportion of new oak (100%, 50%, 30%, etc.) and the duration of ageing (6, 12, 18, 24 months) allow the winemaker to calibrate its impact precisely.

Old oak (barrels used for 4+ vintages) contributes no flavour but provides a porous environment for gentle, slow oxidation. This softens the wine and allows it to develop complexity without adding oaky flavours. Large old oak vessels (foudres, botti) are traditional in regions like the Southern Rhone, Alsace, and Piedmont.

Malolactic fermentation converts sharper malic acid to softer lactic acid, reducing overall acidity and giving a smoother, creamier mouthfeel. It also produces diacetyl, which gives a buttery flavour – a hallmark of oaked Chardonnay. MLF is standard for reds but optional for whites.

Lees contact and batonnage – when wine sits on its fine lees (dead yeast cells) and is periodically stirred, the lees release proteins and flavour compounds that add body, creaminess, and bread/biscuit/brioche notes. Essential for Muscadet sur lie, Champagne, and premium white Burgundy.

Cool fermentation (12-16C for whites) slows yeast activity, preserving volatile aroma compounds that would otherwise be driven off at higher temperatures. This is why most aromatic white wines (Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Muscat) are fermented cool in stainless steel.

Extended maceration – keeping red wine in contact with grape skins after fermentation is complete extracts additional tannin, colour, and flavour. Used for wines intended for long ageing (Barolo, Bordeaux, Napa Cabernet).

Carbonic maceration – whole, uncrushed bunches of grapes are placed in a sealed tank filled with CO2. Fermentation begins inside each grape, producing wines with vivid fruit aromas, low tannin, and characteristic bubblegum and banana notes. This is the technique behind Beaujolais Nouveau.

Appassimento – grapes are dried on racks for weeks or months after harvest, concentrating sugars and flavours. Used for Amarone della Valpolicella (dry, high-alcohol, rich) and Recioto della Valpolicella (sweet).

Climate Effects on Wine

New World vs Old World Labelling Conventions

Old World (Europe) – wines are traditionally labelled by place of origin rather than grape variety. A bottle labelled “Chablis” is Chardonnay; “Sancerre” is Sauvignon Blanc; “Barolo” is Nebbiolo. The consumer is expected to know which grape variety corresponds to which region. Appellations regulate which grapes can be grown where, maximum yields, minimum alcohol levels, and sometimes ageing requirements.

New World (Americas, Australia, NZ, South Africa) – wines are predominantly labelled by grape variety. A bottle labelled “Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc” tells you both the region and the grape. Minimum varietal content rules apply: the USA requires 75%, Australia requires 85%, the EU requires 85% for PGI wines. Geographic indications (AVA, GI) define areas but generally do not regulate grape varieties or winemaking practices.

The trend is converging: some European regions now include grape varieties on labels (especially at IGP level), and some New World wines use proprietary or regional names (e.g., “Meritage” for Bordeaux-style blends in California).

Key Wine Laws and What They Mean for the Consumer

AOC/AOP (France) – guarantees geographic origin, permitted grapes, maximum yields, minimum alcohol, and production methods. A higher AOC is usually more specific (Pauillac is more specific than Bordeaux), which generally indicates higher quality and price.

DOCG/DOC (Italy) – similar to AOC but with an additional guarantee (the G in DOCG). DOCG wines must pass a government tasting panel. Key DOCGs: Barolo, Barbaresco, Brunello di Montalcino, Chianti Classico, Amarone.

DO/DOCa (Spain) – controls origin, grapes, yields, and ageing. DOCa is the highest tier (only Rioja and Priorat). The ageing terms (Crianza, Reserva, Gran Reserva) provide clear guidance about style and minimum time in oak and bottle.

Pradikatswein (Germany) – classifies wines by the ripeness of grapes at harvest, from Kabinett (lightest) to Trockenbeerenauslese (richest, sweetest). This tells the consumer about the potential sweetness and richness of the wine, though a Kabinett labelled Trocken will be dry.

PDO and PGI (EU-wide) – umbrella terms that harmonise national classifications. PDO wines must be produced entirely within the defined area using local methods. PGI wines have more flexibility. These terms may appear on labels alongside or instead of national terms.

20 Things You Must Know for the Exam

1. Chardonnay is the most versatile white grape – its style is shaped more by winemaking (oak, MLF, lees) than by intrinsic grape character.
2. Sauvignon Blanc = high acidity + aromatic – Loire (herbaceous, mineral), Marlborough (tropical, pungent). Almost always unoaked.
3. Riesling = high acidity + ranges from dry to sweet – Mosel (light, off-dry), Alsace (drier, fuller). Develops petrol with age.
4. Cabernet Sauvignon = full body + high tannin + blackcurrant – Bordeaux Left Bank, Napa Valley. Takes well to new oak. Blended with Merlot in Bordeaux.
5. Pinot Noir = light body + low tannin + cherry/strawberry – Burgundy, Oregon, New Zealand. Cool-climate grape. Ages into earth, mushroom, game.
6. Syrah/Shiraz = one grape, two styles – Syrah (N. Rhone: pepper, violet, firm) vs Shiraz (Barossa: ripe fruit, chocolate, sweet oak).
7. Bordeaux Left Bank = Cabernet Sauvignon dominant. Right Bank = Merlot dominant. This is tested frequently.
8. Burgundy classification runs from Regional to Grand Cru. Know all four levels and what they mean.
9. Rioja ageing terms: Joven (no oak), Crianza (2yr/6mo oak), Reserva (3yr/12mo oak), Gran Reserva (5yr/18mo oak). Memorise these numbers.
10. Nebbiolo = pale colour + very high tannin + rose and tar – Barolo and Barbaresco. Needs years to soften.
11. Traditional method = second fermentation in bottle (Champagne, Cava). Charmat = second fermentation in tank (Prosecco).
12. Port is fortified during fermentation (sweet). Sherry is fortified after fermentation (naturally dry). This distinction is critical.
13. Fino Sherry ages under flor (pale, dry, yeasty). Oloroso ages without flor (dark, rich, nutty). Amontillado starts with flor, then goes oxidative.
14. Warm climate = riper fruit, higher alcohol, lower acidity, fuller body. Cool climate = the opposite. This principle answers many questions.
15. New oak adds vanilla, toast, and tannin. Old oak adds only gentle oxidation. Know the difference between French oak (spice, fine tannin) and American oak (coconut, vanilla).
16. MLF converts malic to lactic acid – softer, creamier, buttery character. Standard for reds; optional for whites.
17. Sangiovese = high acidity + high tannin + sour cherry – Chianti Classico, Brunello. Italy’s most important red grape.
18. Gewurztraminer = lychee, rose, low acidity, full body. Alsace is the classic region. One of the easiest grapes to identify blind.
19. DOCG is higher than DOC in Italy. DOCa is the top tier in Spain (only Rioja and Priorat). PDO is the EU umbrella for all top-tier national designations.
20. Chenin Blanc is the most versatile grape for styles – dry, off-dry, sweet, sparkling, all with high acidity. Loire Valley and South Africa are the key regions.